Yellow-Eyed Penguin

Distribution:

Yellow-Eyed penguins are found in small colonies on the lower E coast of New Zealands South Island, in particular on Otago Peninsula. There are further populations on Stewart, Campbell and Auckland Islands

No subspecies or subtypes are recognized.

Feeding:

Yellow-Eyed penguins feed on a variety of fish which may be up to 25cm long. Preferred prey are blue and red cod, opal fish, silverside, sprat, arahu arrow squid. During the breeding season adults normally hunt at daytime within about 10km of the colony and often near the sea floor on the continental shelf. Birds may dive up to 200 times per day, reaching a maximum depth of 150m and staying underwater for up to 3.5 minutes. Although Yellow-Eyed penguins may swim up to 600km from their colonies, this is unusual and usually involves juvenile birds.

Whilst hunting does not appear to be cooperative, when sea-lions are present near the shore birds may assemble in groups before swimming as fast as possible to the beach.

Adult feeding chick	Juvenile penguin getting rid of processed food

Reproduction:

Yellow-Eyed penguins have a long breeding season starting with courtship in August and finally ending with fledging of the chicks the following March. Nest sites are in forests or other dense vegetation and can be as far as 1km inland with about 1 nest per 1-1.5ha. Nests are lined with twigs and other dry plant material and must be protected from sunlight to avoid heat stress. Pairs usually stay together unless one of the partners is lost. Courtship involves various shaking movements, half-trumpeting (head slightly raised, flippers held slightly away from body) and the ecstatic display (head pointing skywards, flippers pointing sideways) which is common to most penguin species. The cries emitted during these displays are considered less harsh than those of other penguins

Two similar-sized eggs are usually laid over a period of 4 days in Sept./Oct. after which both parents alternate in incubation and feeding duties. Eggs hatch after 39-51 days. This wide range seems to result from the fact that eggs may be left partially uncovered for days directly after laying the second egg (the first egg is never incubated until the second one is laid). This prolongs the incubation period and is common in times of food shortage. Both eggs usually hatch on the same day and the chicks are guarded for 40-50 days and fed equally, even if food is in short supply. This may lead to the death of both chicks even if one could have theoretically survived. Chicks do not form creches and only fledge in mid-february at an age of about 14 weeks. Yellow-Eyed penguins reach sexual maturity at an age of 2 years but rarely breed until at least 1 year later.

Natural nest site	Shift change at artificial nest at Penguin Place.

Adult with 2 about week-old chicks	Imature penguin. Note that yellow colour not developed.

General Behaviour:

Yellow-Eyed penguins are the most timid of penguins and try to avoid both contact with humans and with other Yellow-Eyed penguins. Birds spend most of their lives near their nesting sites. The exact nest site may vary from year to year, but will be behind the same beach. The area around nests is regarded as a territory during the breeding season and will be defended against other penguins. Aggression is expressed by leaning forwards towards the adversary and hunching the shoulders whilst glaring and gaping and making harsh noises. Birds may charge and peck at an opponent but actual contact is rarely made. As with all penguins, actual fighting involves pecking and beating with flippers. Maybe little fighting is observed since populations are presently not particularly dense.

In order to avoid conflict, birds may take an appeasement stance which can involve standing tall looking upwards with hunched shoulders when passing other birds. After passing the flippers may be extended forwards and the bird poises shortly before looking over its shoulder. In response to this "salute", the other bird may assume the "Gawky" stance with beak and flippers pointing formward and neck slightly stretched upwards.

After chicks have fledged, adult birds feed for about a month to gain weight before returning to their colony to moult. Moulting birds are highly vulnerable and may lose up to half of their body weight in the process. After moulting the birds feed intensively to gain weight again in preparation for the next breeding season.

Yellow-Eyed penguins do allopreen and this may involve partners and their chicks.

Threats:

The main threat to colonies of Yellow-Eyed penguins are introduced mammalian predators. Foxes, dogs, cats, ferrets and stoats may kill birds at individual colonies. Natural predators include sharks, hookers sea-lions and barracouta.

Human development is also a major problem as these shy penguins require coastal forestation or at least thick bushwork for nesting. Much of this has been cleared during development over the last several hundred years. The penguins nests are usually out of sight of eachother so colonies require large spaces to accommodate significant numbers of birds. Further, penguins need the protection of the forest when moulting, since during this period they may not go to sea.

Fisheries may be a problem, particularly in times of food shortages. Controlled tourism does not appear to be a major threat to colonies.

Where To See:

The majority of Yellow-Eyed penguins are protected in reserves where introduced predators are kept under control. Although there are still some penguins on mainland NZ outside of these reserves their numbers are low and visitors should not try to visit these sites as they could disturb these extremely shy birds. The main reserves are on Otago Peninsula. The most visited reserve is probably "Penguin Place". There it is possible to get quite close to numerous artificial nest sites (a bit like little wooden sheds) from a system of covered trenches. Whilst artificial nesting boxes are photographically rather unsatisfying the penguins appear to rather like them and one needs to remember that whilst coastal forests recover it is important to provide a nesting solution for the birds. Also, the nesting boxes can be positioned so that activity on the nest can be viewed easily. Further reserves can be visited and may provide views of birds on natural nests, yet these tend to be further away (e.g. Elm Wildlife Tours or Natures Wonders). A combination of tours is recommendable. Touristic development of penguin breeding sites is one of the main ways that funds can be raised for maintaining forestation and controlling predators.

Yellow-Eyed penguins can also be viewed from a hide near Nugget Point, South of Dunedin, yet no nests can usually be seen.

Site of Penguin Place colony, Otago Peninsula	Observation hide at penguin place

Natures Wonders nesting area viewed from hide	Hide with nesting site behind, Nugget Point